Drawing on nearly 250 years of Indian colonial history, new research examines how direct British rule and landlord-based land tenure shaped access to schools, health centres, roads, and agricultural productivity across Indian districts. Updated analysis shows that targeted post-colonial policies have erased many of these gaps, but income and fertiliser-use differentials linked to the land system remain.

Voting rights alone did not transform political participation or competition in India, but they did shift government priorities in favour of the newly enfranchised voters.

When women win elections, does it inspire other women to run for candidacy or does it convince men to close ranks before the next election?